Month: November 2019

Language loss and dialect leveling in Hong Kong

Posted on by Benedict J. L. ROWLETT

by Jeanie Chan

In recent decades, Hong Kong society has seen a trend of moving away from minority ‘home dialects’ such as Hakka and Chiu Chau towards Cantonese, reflecting the process of language shift. One significant example is that in the early twentieth century, the Hakka people were a clear majority in the northern New Territories, accounting for around 54% of the population. This proves that Hakka was an important indigenous language of Hong Kong alongside Cantonese in the past. But in the past fifty years, it has been continuously disappearing and breaking down. Indeed, the Hakka community is facing the process of language loss. We describe this phenomenon as ‘a dialect murders another dialect’ as Cantonese is murdering the old tongues. The marginal dialects are no longer being spoken because young people regard it as ‘useless’ and ‘an obstacle to acquiring Hong Kong identity’. 

In many societies, including Hong Kong, the process of language shift and language loss take place over three generations, particularly for immigrant families. For example: in a Hakka family in Hong Kong: 

  1. The grandparents habitually speak the Hakka dialect to each other and to the next generation, i.e. the parents; 
  2. The parents often speak Hakka to the grandparents, but usually speak Cantonese to each other and their children
  3. The children normally speak Cantonese at home and school, and while they may be able to understand part of their grandparents’ language, but they are usually unable to speak Hakka. 

The eventual result of such a progress is language death which means no one in the speech community (Hong Kong) uses that variety anymore. Another reason language shift has occurred so rapidly in Hong Kong are the psychological tendency and the spread of education, which we will discuss along with dialect levelling. 

In linguistics, dialect levelling refers to the reduction or elimination of marked differences between dialects over time[1]. This means that speakers of other dialects tend to use the prestigious and standard dialect and, as a consequence, the language diversity will be reduced. 

According to Hong Kong Population 2019 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)[2], it classified Hong Kong people into the following seven distinct categories. 

Hakka people
Picture credit: https://lcom3001-exploringahongkongminor.weebly.com/how-did-hakka-appear-in-hong-kong.html
  1. Cantonese people 
  2. Hakka people [Mandarin VS Cantonese VS Hakka]    Listen here
  3. Chiu Chau people [Teochew], including Fukien [Hokkien or Minnan language] and Hoklos [Hokkien]  Listen here
  4. Tankas or boat people   Listen here    
  5. Shanghainese and other northerners (non-Southern Chinese) Listen here
  6. Westerners  
  7. South Asians, such as Indians and Pakistanis 
Hoklo people or Hokkien people
Picture credit: https://en wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoklo_people.
Tankas or boat people 
Picture credit: http://hk.history1.org/wp/2017/06/22/tanka/

Although there are a number of varieties of Chinese in Hong Kong society, Hong Kong Cantonese has emerged as the dominant spoken language in Hong Kong. In addition, as relations between people in Hong Kong and mainland China have been relatively tense since the early 2000s, Cantonese becomes a major distinction between Hong Kong and Mainland China. Due to the psychological tendency to merge into the community and strengthen the local Hong Kong identity, immigrants (especially youngsters) tend to speak like other Hong Kong people. They are generally keen to adopt the speech of the community (Cantonese) as it is an important way of not being considered as an outsider and protecting themselves from being bullied in schools and workplace. This is the process of the dialect levelling through which Hong Kong immigrants adapt their speech to Hong Kong Cantonese, conforming to the norms of Hong Kong society gradually. 

Apart from the psychological tendency mentioned, educational development in Hong Kong has also facilitated the process of dialect levelling. Education in Hong Kong has been free, and school has been compulsory between ages 6 to 15 (primary and junior secondary schools) since the 1970s. This has enabled children from poorer families and immigrant families to receive education. Linguistically, there has had two major consequences: first, more children have been able to learn English at schools and second, youngsters from minority dialect backgrounds have been educated in Cantonese, the major medium of instruction in the classroom. As a result, even though they are from Chiu Chau, Fukien, Hakka and Shanghainese backgrounds, they lost their dialects quickly.     

In conclusion, knowledge of minority ‘home dialects’ tends to correlate strongly with age as older generations in Hong Kong families maintain minority dialects continuously. For children, with universal primary and secondary education, those from minority language families’ background have been socialized through the local schools to acquire ‘Hong Kong Cantonese’. 

[1] https://www.thoughtco.com/dialect-leveling-speech-1690387

[2] http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/hong-kong-population/

Intergenerational language variation in Hong Kong

Posted on by Benedict J. L. ROWLETT

by Aliver Sheng

Although the official language of Hong Kong is Cantonese, with the development of science and technology and the progress of society, the language differences at different times are not small. Here, I divide them into the generation of young people, parents’ generation and grandparents’ generation generally. I mainly analyze the language differences among them in Hong Kong.

On account of the living environment, the development of science and technology and personality characteristics, young people often use homophonic, simplified, global, novel and nonstandard language. Homophone refers to use simple forms with the same pronunciation to replace other complex forms as “I c” means “I see”. Simplify is to shorten or abbreviate the way words are originally written, such as “bbl” means “be back later”. These two languages are the most popular among them in HK. Therefore, it is not uncommon for young people in Hong Kong to make up a sentence almost entirely with simplified words in their online communication, like “plz tell me sth abt the consultation” means “please tell me something about the consultation”. Globalization also is common either in spoken or written language, the most obvious is that Cantonese is intermingled with English in expression which is named Kongish. The phenomenon is also widespread in the parents’ area. The most important feature of young people’s language is that it is rich in content and changes quickly. Even in the same school, the language used by year 3 students is outdated for freshmen. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that modal particle (/læ/，/lʌ/，/wɒr/，/ar/) and dirty words are common in the language used by young people. Written language for exams still very official. All of these language impacts literariness with individuality and makes the language of young people full of flexibility and expressiveness.

Kongish and modal particle
Picture credit: https://sites.google.com/site/ccgl90382015singlish/Literature_review/conversation- example
Kongish and modal particle
Picture credit: https://sites.google.com/site/ccgl90382015singlish/Literature_review/conversation- example

Further information about modal particle：https://youtu.be/P-a0k9xS5Io

Our parents’ generation used formal and normative language, because of the work environment and grandparents’ education. However, they know some of the languages that young people use, and most of them are interested in learning about them, and some parents even use them with their children. Their language is more applicable to social life, as there are lots of words and phrases, which can avoid FTAs and maintain interpersonal relationships as well as social structure. For instance, when you visit someone’s home, the host will say “There’s no need to bring so many presents, you are too kind”, which can relieve the awkward atmosphere. This kind of euphemism is also common among the older generation, while the younger generation will say “thank you” directly. Sometimes, parents’ generation can be a medium of translation between young people and grandparents’ generation because they know something about both languages.

Due to limited technology and the social environment, grandparents’ generation neither know the language used by young people nor use it. In addition, many of them have immigrated from mainland China, such as Shanghai, Chaozhou, and Fujian, so they may speak Wai Tau, Taiwanese, Hakka or other dialects. Some of them speak Cantonese with an accent. For example, “你食飯未?” and “你食飯免?”, both of them means “have you eaten yet?”, the first one is normal Cantonese, the second one is different in the last word which is Hakka. In the past, these dialects were as a dominant language in Hong Kong as Cantonese is today. Now, these dialects are gradually disappearing and only a few elderly people can speak them. At the same time, young people born and raised in Hong Kong do not understand their language. There is a big generation gap between their language and that of the young.

See more about dialect information in HK. Please click:  http://archive.rthk.hk/mp4/tv/2018/HKCVET2018M00600010.mp4

They have many of the same expressions as the mainland, such as the number 886 represents “goodbye”, “520” which means “I love you” and they apply the same abbreviation skills and homophonic ways. One difference is that the mainland rarely mixes English with mandarin, but mainland people speak Chinglish. Generally speaking, the language variation of parents and grandparents and young people in HK also applies to the mainland. However, young people in the mainland have a language for chasing stars, namely, the language of fans circle, which is unknown to their parents and grandparents. Not only that, most of the Internet language has become the daily oral expression of parents and young people, but the written language is still very formal. Another difference lies in the universality of dialects. Most grandparents speak mandarin or a dialect with an accent. Young people who can speak dialects can master both dialects and mandarin at the same time. They can communicate smoothly with their grandparents who speak dialects at home, while young people who cannot speak dialects cannot communicate with them. The ability to speak dialects declines over time. (More information about Chinglish: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nn3OQWP9br4)

In general, language variation increases with between different generations. But with the rapid popularization and dissemination of the network as well as the widespread use of orthodox language, the variation is gradually narrowing. Besides, more and more daily expressions are affected by the network language, even to the point of intergenerational communication.

Role of Government and Education in Hong Kong’s English Proficiency

Posted on by Benedict J. L. ROWLETT

By Simone Ng

English has been the most commonly-used lingua franca cross-culturally in the world. As Hong Kong had been ruled as a British colony for over one hundred years, English has played a prominent and significant role on myriad aspects of the development in the territory, such as education, politics and society. Owing to such special socio-economic and historical background, and the language policy, English has been our official language and has been set as a compulsory language subject in primary, secondary and tertiary education in Hong Kong and used as medium of instruction. Even though Hong Kong people always pride themselves as the leading cosmopolitans, and “biliteracy and trilingualism” has been promoted as the education aim by the Education Bureau for years, the English proficiency of Hongkongers has always been criticised as unsatisfactory. The recent EF report even reveals that Hong Kong has been outpaced by other international metropolises in English proficiency, such as Singapore, Shanghai and Malaysia.  

“Students doing exams in the classroom”
Photo: Orange News. Retrieved from  http://www.orangenews.hk/pic/0/10/16/07/10160756_963806.jpg

When it comes to the issue of English deficiency in Hong Kong, the education culture of rote learning and exam-oriented, and overemphasis on “Educated English” have been major causes of the problem. As the education in Hong Kong places much emphasis on surface learning, students have fostered the habit of only reciting and repeating materials through rote memorization, neither understanding the meaning of it nor the linkage between the newly-taught information and previously-learnt knowledge. Besides, since Hong Kong education is mainly exam-oriented, the importance of exam skills far outweighs the original purpose of learning. Students tend to spend hours to read sample essays. Yet, the reasons for viewing piles of articles and practising exam drills are merely due to the enrichment of linguistic structure and implications, including vocabulary and enhancement of sentence structures, instead of the curiosity about the language. Consequently, when it comes to daily usage of English, it appears to be difficult for students to use native phrases to communicate. Meanwhile, this is also the result of overemphasis on “Educated English”, which is known as “Standard English” as well. Since there is only a limited selection of expressions in this particular type of English in the school curriculum, these phrases and sentences can only be used in certain contexts, such as academic and formal writing, instead of other purposes in daily settings. This hampers the understandings of Hong Kong students towards distinct forms of written and spoken English. Therefore, the education culture has adversely affected the English standard in Hong Kong. 

“HKSAR Government press conference”.
Photo: Sam Tsang. Retrieved from https://www.scmp.com/
comment/letters/article/
3015272/seven-myths-about-hong-kong-extradition-bill

Aside from this, the inadequate English environment has been another main factor contributing to declining English proficiency in Hong Kong. Although English is Hong Kong’s second official language, most public speeches and verbal announcements are given in Cantonese by the authorities, while English is only used occasionally, such as when answering questions from press asked in English. Due to the trickle-down effect, the general public tend to speak in Cantonese instead of English during their conversation, since they are used to watching TV news and receiving messages from the government in their mother tongue, Cantonese. Without comprehensive and sufficient usage of English in daily life, people have gradually developed a fear of English. As a result, without adequate practice, people avoid using English due to their lack of confidence in the language. This will eventually form an unhealthy English-learning environment and inhibit language proficiency in Hong Kong.

To deal with the issue, several prompt measures should be taken by the government. First, the officials should arouse public awareness towards the vital importance of English. Decent English proficiency is in fact the key to success in Hong Kong, as it lifts our competitive edge in the global arena. Without this benefit, transnational finance companies may retreat from Hong Kong and the city will lose its reputation of being an international cosmopolitan. Being a role model of using English actively in Government’s official press conferences can help promote the language through propaganda. By doing so, people will finally realise the essential role of English played in the development in Hong Kong. Furthermore, the Education Bureau should consider the reform of the English curriculum, including the syllabus, and way of teaching and assessments, since the current syllabus remains tedious and out-of-date. Therefore, officers in the department should redesign the curriculum through including more self-directed learning, in-depth reading and language used in daily settings so as to equip students to become native second-language learners. 

To conclude, the education culture, overemphasis on Standard English and inadequate English environment have been the culprits of deteriorating English standards in Hong Kong. To sustain our global competitiveness and reputation, it is therefore high time for the government took immediate actions before Hong Kong’s English standard becomes more dwindling. 

Kongish – a new language of Hong Kongers

Posted on by Benedict J. L. ROWLETT

By Cindy Tse

In Hong Kong, there are mainly two official languages, Cantonese and English. At primary and secondary school, we need to learn the third language, Putonghua. Therefore, Hong Kong students become trilingual. In this situation, as we learn three languages at the same time, there will be some interference between languages. Then, Kongish is produced.

Kongish is a mixture of Cantonese and English, which is also called Hong Kong English. As a Hong Konger, Kongish is the same as Cantonese to represent our identity. We use Kongish mostly in social media, like texting to others. We only use Kongish in an informal way as not many people in Hong Kong can read and write Kongish especially the elderly and not all of them can accept Kongish as a language to communicate. Therefore, Kongish is used among teenagers and adults only.

Why do people like using Kongish in social media? According to the founders of Kongish Daily, people use Kongish because they would like to use English to text, which is more convenient than typing Chinese words but they may not know all the words so they use their limited English vocabulary and Cantonese pinyin to express themselves.

Have you ever heard or read any Kongish in Hong Kong? Here are some examples of Kongish. Let’s make a guess.                           

add oil
blow water
show me your love rice
need sheep have sheep

For the first one, you may wonder it relates to food because oil is added. But “add oil” should be the easiest as it has been added into Oxford English Dictionary as a phrase to express encouragement. In Cantonese, “add oil” is Gayau 加油and it is directly translated as 加 means “add” while 油 mean “oil”. Therefore, you can say “add oil” to your friends when they need to have an exam.

For the second one, you may feel confused about this phrase. Why do we need to blow the water? Is it too hot? Actually, “blow water” is a Cantonese slang which means to chitchat or to chat without purpose. It is also directly translated as “blow” refers to 吹 and “water” is 水, then “blow water” is吹水in Cantonese. Therefore, you can “blow water” with your friends when you are bored.

For the third one, it is the most difficult one and I also spend some time to think about the meaning. Is it about cooking? Yes, it is related and it is a kind of rice that we can eat in Cha-Chaan-Tang, the local food stall in Hong Kong. Actually, “show me your love rice” is rice with pork and creamed corn and it is translated mostly by its Cantonese pronunciation, shuk mai yuk lup fan (rice) 栗米肉粒飯. Therefore, you may order “show me your love rice” in Cha-Chaan-Tang but the staff there may not understand.

For the last one, you may think that it is related to sheep and it is easy to get the meaning. However, it is wrong. The meaning of “need sheep have sheep” is that if we want something then we can get that thing. “Sheep” refers to “meh” 咩which is the sound of sheep in Cantonese. Therefore, you may wish others “need sheep have sheep” during Chinese New Year.

Is Kongish interesting? I think the answer is yes. Although you can read or understand all the English words, you still cannot understand the whole meaning. Apart from the phrases, let’s take a look at Kongish conversation.

In Kongish,

A: Hey! Nei today sheung ng sheung tong ar?

B: Ng la. D tong ho boring ar.. 

A: Dou hai ge. Gum nei do zor ben d hw mei?

B: Har? Yau meh hw ar? Ng ho scare me wo~~

In English,

A: Hey! Will you go to school today?

B: No, the lessons are so boring.

A: You’re right. By the way, have you done Ben’s homework?

B: What? What homework has Ben distributed? Please don’t scare me!

Actually, there is no standard Kongish for people to use. Even the same meaning can have different expressions so everyone can create their own Kongish due to their understanding of Cantonese pinyin. If you want to know more about Kongish, you may search “Kongish” on the Internet to look for other examples. If learning Cantonese is the first step to integrating into Hong Kong, learning Kongish will be the second step to communicate with Hong Kongers.

Further information

https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/article/1903452/hongkongers-mix-english-and-cantonese-new-language-kongish

https://www.facebook.com/KongishDaily/

What’s your name in Chinese?

Posted on by Benedict J. L. ROWLETT

By Boris Mo

Unlike names in English, Chinese parents can put together characters that index their wishes towards the kid to form one’s own name. Some of the most common characters in Chinese names are 康, 恩, and謙, which means health, blessing, and modesty. Like many other Southeast Asian cultures, Chinese names have culturally embedded meanings passed on from the older generation to their descendants. Surprisingly, some foreigners have this privilege to share this part of the oriental culture.

There are ways to turn an English name into Chinese words. The easiest way would be transcribing English sounds with Chinese words. Michael Jackson becomes 米高積遜 [1], which is accurate in pronunciation, but does not mean much within words.

The Chinese name of most of the British government officials are beautiful. Being the last Governor of Hong Kong, one of the very few regions that were handed over instead of having independence after decolonisation, ensuring the handover process peaceful and calm was the paramount objective of Chris Patten. This hope is woven into his Chinese name 彭定康 [2], a stable and healthy future. The name also brought Patten closer to Hongkongers. The first syllable is a common Chinese surname which brings resemblance to his English surname. The third syllable 康 is seen often in Hong Kong male’s names. This makes Patten sound like he is anyone living next door to us.

Photo: HKEJ


Named by the British Consulate General in Hong Kong, this naming system makes it easier for the Chinese population to remember the British officials, connects the locals with a sense of familiarity, yet retains the authority and formality.

Instead of directly transcribing their names from English to Chinese, this naming system translates English names and gives them a status alongside with a meaningful cultural entity. Take Theresa May as an example, she appears in Hong Kong Chinese media as 文翠珊 [3], having a vivid image of her in the parliament court trying to go gentle but end up being hard like a jade. The translation looks like an actual name of Chinese too, with the first syllable as the surname and the rest as given name. Even though she is on the other side of the globe, Hong Kong news readers would possibly be struck by the aura looking at her superlady name. Not only is it an elegant translation, but the name also brings up the postcolonial status of the British in Hong Kong society.

This naming culture has been a convention in Hong Kong long from the colonial time till now. As the colonial time goes by and the city becomes more Chinese, this naming practice has been more lenient in recent years. Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, David Cameron 卡梅倫 [4] and Boris Johnson 約翰遜 [5], were named in Chinese phonological transcription. Instead of giving him a culturally meaningful name, the authority settled for the translation. One may suggest that Cameron is only a case until Meghan Markle 梅根 [6] enters the British royal family, this can be seen as a pattern of stepping down of the English after the handover. One would have never imagined the root of the plant can be tied to the royal family in any way, let alone to any lady character of them. If Meghan were there 20 years earlier, she would probably be named 美瑾 [7], a beautiful piece of jewelry instead of the root of plum.

[1] [mɐi13 kou55 tsɪk5 sɵn33] containing morphemes of rice, height, accumulate, and poor

[2] [pʰaŋ21 tɛŋ22 hɔŋ55] containing a common Chinese surname, and morphemes of stabilise and calm

[3] [mɐn21 tsʰɵy33 san55] containing morphemes of gentle, jade, and coral

[4] [kʰat55 mui21 lɵn21] containing morphemes of card, plum, and relationship

[5] [jœk33 hɔn22 sɵn33] containing morphemes of almost, feather, and poor

[6] [mui21 kɐn55] containing morphemes of plum, and root

[7] [mei13 kɐn35] containing morphemes of beauty, and jewel

The Status Difference between EMI Schools and CMI Schools

Posted on by Benedict J. L. ROWLETT

By Veronica Chan

2.jpg

Schools that use English as the main medium for instruction (EMI schools) are more favoured by parents than schools that used Chinese as the main medium for instruction (CMI). Parents normally choose EMI schools over CMI schools. There is a status difference between CMI schools and EMI schools where EMI schools are winning against CMI schools in terms of reputation and prestige. There are several reasons behind the status superiority that EMI schools have over CMI schools in Hong Kong, including the rising demand for English and the general misconception that EMI schools create better results. 

Due to internationalization and globalized economy, many workplaces require English as the medium of communication. Multinational Corporations in Hong Kong and China are looking for English-speaking candidates and English is used frequently in the workplace even though the workers share a common language aside from English. Hong Kong is known as an international city, uniting different cultures and languages. It is a must for people, such as waiters and sales to speak the English tongue. Driven by the economic environment in Hong Kong and the culture of Hong Kong, the need for English in the workplace is high. People that speak English well are valued in the workplace. The rising demand for English in Hong Kong is clear to the parents and therefore, EMI schools are very much sought after by the parents. By sending their children to EMI schools, parents may ensure their children have good English exposure and improve their children’s English. Therefore, benefitting their children in their future workplace and facilitating their children’s chances to earn a better job and to have a brighter future.

Another main reason for the status difference between EMI schools and CMI schools is the general belief that EMI schools create better results and provide more effective schooling due to having English as the medium of instruction. As parents choose EMI schools over CMI schools, EMI schools generally receive more students with multiples talents, including Arts, Sports and Academic. Because of that, EMI schools can reap the best crops out of the student population and therefore, EMI schools can produce better results through having more academically talented students. It can be seen through the release of DSE results. Out of the 12 top scorers in DSE, only one top scorer comes from a CMI school. Aside from EMI schools having more talented students, EMI schools also have more resources and professional teachers than a lot of CMI schools. It is not hard to guess which medium of instruction schools have better results in public exams. Due to the excellent result shown in public exam, the parents have more faith in EMI schools and therefore the competition for EMI school places becomes tight and EMI schools can choose the more academically talented students. It is a cycle which leads to an eventual status difference between CMI and EMI.

Another minor reason for favouring EMI schools over CMI schools is the main medium of instruction in universities around the world. All parents have high hopes for their children and would like to help them pave their way to a brighter future. English as the medium of instruction is inevitable in tertiary education around the world. The same medium used in EMI schools and universities around the world helps students studying in EMI schools to adapt to university education easier. By studying in EMI schools, the gap between secondary school and the university is narrowed, giving students an head start during their tertiary education, for example students studying chemistry in CMI schools will have a hard time memorising the English names of the chemicals compared to EMI students. This advantage may attract students and parents alike. This also makes EMI schools be more sought out than CMI schools in Hong Kong.

Even though the government have tried to encourage mother tongue teaching and allowing schools to fine-tune their medium of instruction, this does not affect the status difference between EMI schools and CMI schools. It is a common belief that English is a more superior language than other languages due to the vast population that can use English for communication. It is a belief that is firmly implanted and shared in different nations. Due to the number of reasons mentioned above and the failure of the government’s policy and encouragement of mother-tongue schooling, EMI schools have maintained a more superior standing than CMI schools in Hong Kong throughout the recent years.

Further information:

https://www.debate.org/opinions/should-english-be-the-global-language-is-there-a-factor-that-makes-english-superior-to-other-languages